No doubt there are many tensions that exist between the competing worldviews. These tensions are expressed through cultural universalism and cultural relativism which are two different views of looking at culture. Like anything, there are many degrees of both cultural relativism and cultural universalism, these notions are on a spectrum which can run from a very strong position to a very weak position. For the purpose of this essay I will discuss these notions in relation to the strong end of the spectrum, these forms have been dubbed by many anthropologists such as Jack Donnelly as radical universalism and radical relativism. I will start by providing a few definitions and I will then discuss three real world issues in detail.The real-world issues that I will be discussing in detail are female genital mutilation, the issue of child marriage and honour killings.
The term culture has been described as being one of the most difficult terms to define, Kroeber and Kluckhohn who are two American anthropologists have composed a list of 164 different definitions for the term culture. One definition that stands out defines culture as consisting of “patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behaviour acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiment in artefacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other, as conditional elements of future action.’ (Kroeber ; Kluckhohn,1952) Others have coined the term culture as “the shared patterns of behaviours and interactions, cognitive constructs, and affective understanding that are learned through a process of socialization. These shared patterns identify the members of a culture group while also distinguishing those of another group”(CARLA,n.d)
Cultural relativism follows the belief that every culture should be allowed its own beliefs, moral and ethical systems, and should not be judged. It follows the notion that all cultures are inherently different and they should be discerned to a local standard. (Thomas,2012) This is based on the idea that there is no universal standard of morality, so any perceptions of what is right or wrong is just a product of a particular society. Due to there being no universal conception of what is right and wrong, it is argued how can one culture be viewed as wrong or partaking in immoral practices and another not. It maintains that any moral values that one has is shaped by one’s local traditions and cultural practices. (Donnelly,2003) (All about philosophy, n.d)
While universalism is very much a human rights-based approach. It relates to the individual as human being and it is very often described as being a defence for the individual against a culture. It believes that some practices are never acceptable regardless of whether it is traditional to a culture. Universalism holds all cultures to a single universal standard of morality and It maintains that culture is irrelevant to this standard. (Donnelly,2002) (Anthony,2006)
One tension that is very prominent is the topic of human rights and the role they play in a culture. Human rights have been described by Amnesty International, a human rights organisation as “Inherent, Inalienable, Interdependent, indivisible and universal”.(Amnesty International, n.d). The current main human rights regime is The Universal Declaration of Human Rights which was created in 1948 just after world war two to prevent a catastrophe of such kind from happening again. It is described as “a common standard of achievements for all peoples and all nations”. However, it has been criticised in the past by The American Anthropological Association in their 1999 statement on human rights. They put forward the argument that by claiming human rights are universal, we are ignoring and undermining the cultural differences that exist between societies in the many different parts of the world(Committee for Human Rights American Anthropological Association,1999)
To cultural universalists human rights are innate, inalienable and sacrosanct. These rights are entitled to everyone simply by virtue of being a human being. (UNFPA ,2005 ) While cultural relativists contend that the human rights regime is in fact a western construct in an effort to affirm their own moral principles as being the superior principles. (O’Sullivan,2000) (Kutty,2016).
Female genital mutilation is a cultural practice that no doubt causes tension between the many different world views. FGM is described by the World Health Organisation as a procedure that intentionally alters or causes injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons. It is widely practiced in many different areas worldwide, particularly in areas such as Asia, Africa and the Middle East. However, with the increase in migration it is cannot be said that it is only restricted to these areas. It is practiced for many different reasons varying on the culture, some of the motivations include religion, morality, family honour, virginity, to try to control female sexuality and in some communities, it is seen as a form of beautification or even a passage to womanhood. Hahn and Marcia ,2009 ) It has been proven that the procedure has no health benefits, it can cause severe bleeding and problems urinating, and later cysts, infections, as well as complications in childbirth and increased risk of new-born deaths. (World Health Organisation,2018) Female genital mutilation has been recognised as form of discrimination, on the basis of gender, it is entrenched in gender inequalities and the power imbalances between men and women. It restrains a women’s full and equal enjoyment of their human rights.(Eliminating female genital mutilation: an interagency statement World Health Organization 2008)
However, this procedure goes against The Universal Declaration of Human Rights which has declared female genital mutilation a violation of the human rights of child and woman while also being recognised as dangerous and amounting to abuse. (Odeku, Rembe & Anwo ,2009) As stated by the World Health Organisation in their most recently published statement on the elimination of female genital mutilation “Female genital mutilation violates a series of well-established human rights principles, norms and standards, including the principles of equality and non-discrimination on the basis of sex, the right to life when the procedure results in death, and the right to freedom from torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment”. (World Health Organization, 2008).
The problem cultural universalists have with female genital mutilation is firstly it is and has been recognised as an infringement of human rights (which are relied heavily on by universalists). As mentioned previously, cultural universalism is often described as protection of the individual, so universalists tend to consider closely the effects of a certain cultural practice on the individual. It has been established by many studies conducted by medical professions that female genital mutilation has many negative consequences associated with it. Immediate risks include but are not limited to severe pain as proper anaesthesia is very rarely used, and the healing process if often very painful, shock can be induced by the pain, haemorrhaging and infections (World Health Organization,2008) and many psychological effects such as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder.
The cultural relativist argument behind female genital mutilation is that it is a traditional cultural practice that it needs to be understood in its cultural context (Li ,2001) Cultural relativists believe that Westerners establish the norms based on their own idea of what is right and what is wrong and that Westerners failed to recognise how different cultures possess different concepts of moral rules as well as different concepts of right and wrong. (Cassman,2008). Another argument is the long-term cultural consequences a woman or girl may suffer if she decides not to undergo the procedure. This can result in the girl being ostracized by her family, friends or society. As I mentioned previously female genital mutilation holds a high status in many cultures with some of the motivations including religion, morality, family honour and in some cases it is even necessary in order to marry.
Some cultural relativists would even compare female genital to mutilation to cosmetic surgery which is often carried out by westerners. Theodore Bennett draws out these alleged similarities in his journal “The beauty and the beast-analogising between cosmetic surgery and female genital mutilation”. His claim is that female genital mutilation ” is required in some societies for a woman to achieve patriarchal cultural ideas of femininity”, and that similarly western cosmetic surgeries are also designed to help women achieve these patriarchal cultural ideas of beauty (Bennett,2012) Another tension that no doubt exists between two competing world views is the issue of child marriage. Child marriage is a formal marriage in which one or both of the parties is under eighteen, very often it is the marriage of a young girl to an older boy or man. (Selby ,2018 ). Child brides can be found in almost every region in the world, from the Middle East to, South Asia to Europe. Some of the countries with the highest rates of child marriage include Niger, Bangladesh, South Sudan and Mali. Child marriages happens for many different reasons one of the underlying rationales being poverty, child marriage is often seen a solution to secure the future, the marriage of a daughter is even see as opportunity to repay debts, manage disputes, or settle social, economic and political alliances. Like female genital mutilation, the practice of child marriage is one that is traditional and simply takes place for no other reason than it being the norm. In some cultures, such as that of South Ethiopia it is seen as a rite of passage to womanhood. (Girls not brides,n.d)
Just like with female mutilation, cultural relativists argue that the practice of child marriage must also be understood in its cultural context. Child marriage is the social norm in many of these communities and very often, those who do not partake in this cultural norm are shunned by the community and treated as outsiders. The societies in question have values that may differ depending on the different social aspects such as poverty. Just like education is valued by many westerners, the idea of honour and chastity is a value that is of important to other societies. Preserving a girl’s virginity before marriage is central to the idea of child marriage. ( Zevallos,2012) Ultimately child marriage is motivated by “traditions and gender-discriminatory norms rooted in patriarchal values and ideologies” (Svanemyr, 2015) In many of these patriarchal societies, marriage is considered a contract between the groom and the male guardian of the bride, not between the usual groom and the bride. (Nigam,n.d). The perceptions of “childhood” is also considered by cultural relativists, as like anything the notion of childhood varies from place to place. It has been claimed that childhood is actually a social construct. Meaning that the understandings of childhood are not the same universally and that while “all societies acknowledge that children are different from adults, how they are different and what expectations are placed on them, change according to the society in which they live.” (Montgomery, 2013)
As mentioned previously the universalist counter argument relies on the notion on human rights. The United Nations has declared that child marriage is a violation of both human rights and children’s rights. There are numerous international conventions and laws that have been put in place for the protection of children on the issue of child marriage. Article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that “men and women have equal rights to marriage, during marriage and after its dissolution” and that “marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses”(Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948) The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women is bill that came into force in 1981, within this bill it is stated that child marriage shall have no legal effect. Manganara 2016). According to the United Nations Population fund “Child marriage denies girls the right to choose whom and when to marry – one of life’s most important decisions. Choosing one’s partner is a major decision, one that should be made freely and without fear or coercion”(United Nations population fund, n.d).In November 2014 the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution to end early, child and forced marriages. This resolution appeals to states to “enact, enforce and uphold laws and policies aimed at preventing and ending child, early and forced marriage and protecting those at risk, and ensure that marriage is entered into only with the informed, free and full consent of the intending spouse”. (Right to education, 2014) ”
An Honour killing is essentially the murder of a girl or woman by a male family member in the name of preserving the family’s honour. Honour killings occur in patriarchal societies such as the Middle East, South Asia, and in many migrant communities in Western societies too. (Pope, 2012.Its within in these patriarchal societies that women are considered to be the property of their male relatives and their bodies are considered the heart of family honour. If a woman or girl is accused or suspected of engaging in behaviour that could possibly bring shame upon a male or the family’s status, she may face brutal revenge from her relatives that very often results in a violent death.(Amnesty international,2016) Most often the girl or woman has defied what has been described by Nicole Pope as “an unwritten patriarchal code of conduct”. Such defiance can range from talking to an unrelated male to having consensual sexual relations outside marriage to being a victim of rape to seeking a divorce or refusing to marry the man that her family has chosen for her. It is estimated by the United Nations that at least 5000 women and girls are killed each due to honour killings. As stated by the chief of the United Nations, “In the name of preserving family ‘honour,’ women and girls are shot, stoned, burned, buried alive, strangled, smothered and knifed to death with horrifying regularity.” There is very little data available on honour killings, partially due to the fact that honour based violence is very often under-reported and frequently covered up, However, The United nations has taken specific action to condemn honour based violence such as honour killings.
From the viewpoint of a cultural universalist, honour killings are a clear breach of Human rights. Article 1 and Article 2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights,” and that “everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in”, (The Universal Declaration of Human Rights,1948) however, Honour killings are a gender-based practice which targets women showing clear inequality and discrimination. Article 3 states that “everyone has the right to life, liberty and security”. Article 5 gives the “right to be free from torture or cruel, inhuman and or degrading treatment”. There is no doubt that honour killings infringe on that right to life and right to be free from cruel treatment when the sole purpose of honour killings is to inflict severe mental and physical pain on the women. (Bajpai ,n.d)
Honour killings are a cultural practice that takes place within societies where the defence of the family’s honour has priority over the rights of women. In these honour cultures, reputation management is one of the most important social ethic there is, superseding all other values. Being dishonoured in a honour culture is a fate that is considered much worse than death. Cultural relativists argue that it is this honour that must be understood by others. “To lose your honour is to lose your protective shield” (Brown , 2016) In such societies, many of the people do not believe that law enforcement can be counted on to protect them from exploitation and assault. As a result of this, people put rely enormously on their reputations to protect them from social predation. (Brown ,2016)
It is clear from my analysis that there are many differences between competing world-views portrayed through cultural relativism and cultural universalism that are no doubt riddled with tension such that of female genital mutilation, child marriage and honour killings.
