Banks whose primary goal is to maximize profits represent the most significant financial institutions in most countries. Unlike this fact which refers to conventional banks (hereafter CBs), Islamic banks (hereafter IBs) are trying to be socially responsible while operating in accordance with religious principles, prohibiting the use of interest and following the model of profit and loss sharing with their clients. Despite its relatively short history compared to CBs, IBs and Islamic finance in general represent one of the fastest growing financial industries. The financial crisis of 2007-2008 had a global impact on banking institutions; therefore, this research focuses on the effect of the financial crisis on CBs and IBs’ financial stability and efficiency, with a special emphasis on the importance of regulation in the banking sector, which is also described by Jean Tirole, an economist and a Nobel Prize winner. It is becoming clear that bank regulatory measures should be in alliance with banking principles conditioned by economic, institutional and cultural environment. Considering the differences in business operations between CBs and IBs, as well as the difference in the approach to regulation between the stated banks, which exist only due to the principles according to which they operate, the focus of this research paper is on the differences in the operations of these banks as well as on the impact of these differences on the stability and efficiency of CBs and IBs. In this regard, the objective of the paper is to analyze CBs and IBs’ characteristics, explore the differences and similarities in their business, provide an overview of empirical studies on the stability and efficiency of these banks prior to, during and after the last financial crisis, and finally, to draw conclusions about the impact of CBs and IBs’ specific characteristics of business on the stability and efficiency of these banks.
Development of Conventional Banks
The first precursors of banks can be traced back to ancient times (the Middle East, Greece, Rome), with the emergence of exchange of goods in the areas rich in natural resources. In the period from 3400 to 3200 BC in the Middle East, the appearance of banks was related to religious beliefs, thus the temples were bank founders. After Hammurabi’s Code on the Banks from 2500 BC, the banking changes from a religious to a commercial activity, it is taken out of the temples and the real banking industry begins. Still, the banks as we know themdevelop only with the emergence of money. The first beginnings of banking similar to modern conventional banking were seen in Italy, in the region of Lombardy, while Casa di San Giorgio in Genoa is considered the first bank and was established in 1407. Interestingly, following the development of banks in Italy in the 15th century, Benedikt Kotruljevi? from Dubrovnik, in his book “On Trade and the Perfect Merchant” from 1458 (published in Venice in 1573), besides trading, merchants, market, monetary and commercial ethics, writes about banking instruments, credit loans and interest rates (Cerovi?, et al., 2012, p. 37). In his book, Kotruljevi? describes bankers as merchants rather than moneylenders, because according to him, loans were considered support for which commission was paid, not interest, and if there is no interest, there is no usury (Perišin, 1996, p. 102). The development of banking through history was largely influenced by the growing human needs in the fields of production and trade. The increasing concentration of capital in production and trade resulted in an increasing concentration of capital in banking. Various economic and political conditions led to new processes in banking as we know it today, so the period between the 19th century and the 1st World War is characterized by the process of concentration of banks. The period between the 1st and the 2nd World War is characterized by bank specialization, whereas the development of modern banking is seen through the process of globalization.According to Nikoli? and Pe?ari? (2007, p. 198), this globalization process initiated de-specialization of banking operations whose goal is to create a bank as a universal financial institution which offers all services. The despecialization process is a precondition for their survival in the globalized financial market and a way to fight off stiff competition from non-bank institutions.
Development of Islamic Banks
The establishment of the first interest-free bank in Egypt in 1963 is considered the official beginning of Islamic banking (Ahmad, 2014, p. 158; Hadži?, 2005, p. 18). In 1974, the Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC) founded an IB called Islamic Development Bank (IDB), whose goal was to promote economic development in Muslim countries and providing the funds for the development in EKON. MISAO I PRAKSA DBK. GOD XXVI. (2017.) BR. 1. (241-263) Lj. Cerovi? et al: COMPARATIVE… 244 accordance with the rules of Sharia2 . By the end of 1970s, several banking systems were founded in the Muslim world; first private commercial bank in Dubai in 1975, in Sudan (FaisalIslamicBank ofSudan) in 1977 and in Bahrain (Bahrain Islamic bank) in 1979 (Institute of Islamic Banking and Insurance, The Islamic Banker). In the early stages of growth of theIslamic financial market in the 1980s, IBs were faced with the lack of quality investment opportunities, which enabled CBs from the West to become mediators in utilizing the funds of IBs. Therefore, Western banks helped IBs to direct the funds in business and trade-related activities, by agreeing that a merchant buys goods on behalf of an IB and sells them at an interest rate margin. Western banks noticed the significance of Islamic financial markets and started to offer Islamic financial products through so called Islamic windows3 , attracting the clients directly, without IBs’ mediation. Today the world counts over 300 IBs in more than 70 countries, and except in Muslim countries they can be found in the following parts of the world: Australia, the Bahamas, Denmark, France, Ireland, Luxembourg, Germany, the USA, Switzerland, the UK, as well as Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina, the only Southeast Europe countries in which there arebanks that operate on Islamic financial principles (Hadži?, 2005, p. 25). It should be noted that in Muslim countries today there are dual banking systems, i. e. the systems that comprise of both CB and IB. The example of the first country with a dual banking system is the United Arab Emirates, where the bank was established in Dubai in 1973 (Dubai Islamic Bank), that resembled the conventional commercial bank in the way it operated, but without paying and receiving interests (El Massah and Al-Sayed, 2015, p. 69).
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS, SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ISLAMIC AND CONVENTIONAL BANKING SYSTEM
The origins of Islam and its prophet Muhammad laid a foundation for the Islamic financial system. It is built on religious principles and laws (Sharia) which imply that trade is allowed by Allah, who prohibits usury and the existence of interests (riba) as a safe, predetermined and fixed income. Therefore, Islamic banking is based on an agreement between the bank and its clients about profit and loss sharing.
In Islamic banking, money represents potential capital until it is invested and united with human work through business activities of production, trade and services based on moral, ethical and religious principles (?o?i?, 2012, p. 215). According to Hadži? (2005, p. 51), Islamic ideology defines (criticizes) lending of the money at an interest rate as a way for the rich (those who have the capital) to make profit without giving anything in return for the income (interest) they receive. This Islamic approach to interest resembles the approach of ancient philosophers (Aristotle) and classical economists (Adam Smith)4 . Islamic teachings indicate that interest discourages people from production and mutual exchange of manufactured goods. If the interest is forbidden, it is considered that individuals borrow to each other with pleasure and thus do good deeds not only to others, but to themselves as well. According to Islam, the interest slows down the process of investment, and consequently, economic and overall social development. In Islamic banking, the risk is shared between the bank and the capital user.The bank is directly interested in the success of a client and participates actively in managing a future company. With such a utilization of funds, it can generate greater profits than from interest income;nevertheless, risk exposure is higher. Imam and Kpodar (2010, p. 4) argue that, along with the prohibition of interest (riba), operations of an IB should abide by other restrictions of Islamic law as well: ? the prohibition of activities that generate asymmetric information, hence encouraging excessive uncertainty, i. e. financial uncertainty (gharar), ? the prohibition of speculative activities (maysir), ? the prohibition of activities that negatively impact the society (haram). Considering those religious principles by which IBs operate, western analysts were skeptical about the establishment of first IBs, as they believed the absence of interest in the banking system would disable bank operations, arguing that interest-free banking implies (Iqbal and Mirakhor, 2009, p. 16): ? unlimited demand for available funds and the lack of supply, ? the lack of savings, ? unrealized investments and growth, ? the failure of monetary policy, because no instrument of liquidity management could exist without a fixed, predetermined interest rate, and ? one-way “escape” of capital. Based on the above, the question is how Islamic financial system and IBs can perform banking operations like CBs, and what services (financial arrangements) they offer to their clients. Despite the interest-free principle, IBs have the right to charge a fee and a commission for the work done. Furthermore, they protect their business on the basis of clearly defined contracts that will be explained below. As Anti? illustrates (2008, p. 64), the forms of financial arrangements in the Islamic financial system, on which business relations are based, can be divided into: ? Mudarabah (agent arrangement) – acontractual agreement between at least two parties in which one contracting partyis a financier of the other party – theentrepreneur, where the profits are shared according to pre-agreed terms, while the losses are borne by the financier of the project. ? Musharakah (joint venture) – a contractual agreement where two or more parties, that want to become partners in a business endeavor, contribute financial resources and thus gain the right of profit sharing in any ratio agreed, while losses are shared in proportion to respective contribution to capital. ? Murabaha (cost plus financing) – a purchase from a financier on a deferred payment basis; the bank purchases goods for the client and gives it to their use, binding them to repay the purchase cost plus an agreed profit margin in more instalments. ? Qard Hassan (benevolent loans) –crediting without contractual fees. ? Ijara, Ijara wa-Iqtina (lease arrangements) – correspond to operational and financial leasing in conventional financial systems. ? Istisna’ (concession agreement) –a model suitable for long-term financing of the acquisition of capital goods. Among the aforementioned financial arrangements, Mudarabah and Musharakah represent the two fundamental forms upon which Islamic financeis based, which makes them the most common in Islamic banking. The main difference between CBs and IBs can be seen in risk sharing and the prohibition of interest. Those are the basic characteristics of Islamic banking, while conventional banks, with the use of interest and various instruments to insure loan repayments, protect themselves against the risk of capital investments. In this way, CBs entirely transfer the risk to the debtor, thus becoming uninterested in the client’s business success. Clients’ deposits in IBs are considered safer because, since only successful investments bring them profit, IBs will not invest into uncertain projects. Therefore, IBs are investment-oriented (most products carry this feature) and concerned for the client’s success (as banks share the same “destiny” with clients). In addition, IBs are considered socially more responsible than CBs (they do not finance the industry of alcohol, tobacco, prostitution, pornography, gamble, military) and religiously-bound (within the limits of their power, they help clients who are in trouble against their will).
On the other hand, IBs(Bosna Bank International) offer its customers different products and services such as those inCBs: ? the use of interest-free credit cards, for which a person pays a one-time fee (which includes the costs of the bank), ? fixed-term savings for which clients do not receive interest, but a certain income as a joint venture of a bank and a client (halal5 income), ? an overdraft on a current account for which a client does not pay interest, but a fixed commission predetermined by the bank. With regard to the abovementioned, one can conclude that in Islamic banking, commissions and various fees for bank services are allowed, as they are not considered the interest, which is forbidden by Islam. This answers the most common questions about the making of the profit and IBs’ survival given the lack of interest, because interest-free banking is not banking without profit, but a stable and secure ethical alternative. Moreover, IBs are protected with clearly defined agreements signed with their clients, so if they finance the purchase of an apartment for a client, IB becomes a partner; i. e. it requires a minimum share in the property, protecting themselves against client’s non-payment. It should be pointed out that IBs’ products are not necessarily cheaper than CBs’ regardless of the lack of interest, because in such cases banks are protected by contacts, fees and commissions paid by the clients.
